The Pot’s Scratch in the Script: What Sanur’s Ceramic Stratigraphy Reveals About Early Tamil-Brahmi Emergence

Long before South Asian scribes dipped reeds into ink, potters carved marks directly into clay. In the red and black earthenware buried alongside Iron Age dead across South India, non-linguistic linear symbols—geometric crosses, trident-like motifs, and ladder patterns—were etched into ceramic surfaces.

For decades, epigraphists and archaeologists treated these non-alphabetic markings as isolated curiosities or simple owner marks. Recent excavations and stratigraphic re-examinations of Megalithic sites in Tamil Nadu, including Sanur in Chengalpattu district and Kodumanal in Erode district, present a more structured sequence [https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQFr-kcU5OG_S8x7CumBTBvLj9Z0itOTRRcmTrB8pZnQ695nZV5-mlq8dObCSVUk7ZJh91pHfbVeUy8XiSPOAq1cewukuMYvX6aqu-4notMOWwJU5VotH_P9hUwOzg==, https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQGwctIss-sluRjkjT_HBE-cqmQidPYwR6wAH1CtRtZgM6vk1l26WOG7k45Qt1ed39kG-10WYBuD1xM0-pj76XMrCkIwail_2w-6wBCUsRtsrZt7F4DL5xDIAnYfrdEQsSzupbZzCtys]. The physical arrangement of these scratched sherds within soil strata documents how South Indian communities used pre-alphabetic symbols before adopting Tamil-Brahmi (an early alphabetic script tailored to Tamil phonology) [https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQE60svIudnholGLgEInvikojlG2zQJrmYRTVMNxVnjbXpTNilEuzYKeYHe35ZlFNiaUbxr1LkpZnlT7wlxCBbjJoy8oiPZuAtrOBgvEZTc0q4_ZHstQO4JxlXxLsyXu9IGqQZhqNFdDBOVcWc9AgGsuakIZyvo2t6c5_hBpsZ1cBbHMfdZpVZ-LR1UnGz3JSt5_vRdL84u0uud0c4h3-2P655YMrfk=].

The Stratigraphy of Sanur

The origin of ceramic scratch marks as a subject of systematic field study dates to the twentieth century. When archaeologists N. R. Banerjee and K. V. Soundara Rajan excavated Megalithic burial monuments at Sanur in 1950 and 1952 for the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), they systematically cataloged post-firing scratch marks on Black-and-Red Ware [https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQGp6k8hnJu-xME2_8xPzmm9B7yJzTt_CRFxqqWbaHrAOgap33gv5G6_nrI7YOnONf4xddrhUx5D1LM8rDua83-A6Wg3RLJlsBaEyO2HRiZZSwKoLt-Oowz7stn6MZtOk_k-mTkwnwRsdH4StQJyXAy9j6sxi76GNvCyAunIm-injAeOIHRFRvWDpe0yYTsD1kn1p6W33eJ-bw==]. These markings were incised into the cold clay after the pots had cleared the kiln [https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQHyKWE986AVPlq8cBNraOYxfbzDcgos4qYmHjV0TOzO2SPd2S6DPAWgWb2xPsMrC03mWswZN_-s0su5oElKx_b4Bkk6TTKISrZV5g4w4dR81yX-6dssp9b1bnE0MncEmOqP0nTv3K1Rk6GhV533ogE9cTPe8FQFDv2uEdtLnnSTtr6wr3uusmILvA6R4UbVYfd2TUD2ragvDON0UFJ4i__1DGki2p0oc-gR5AmLe-exvQ9591V2JSIxJn5Ov_o=].

Archaeologist B. B. Lal cataloged the graffiti signs from Sanur and other Megalithic complexes. Lal noted structural resemblances between specific symbols found on Sanur vessels and earlier Bronze Age signs, as well as later regional scripts [https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQHrfABpBvmiHP4GMtiwhq7EW2iGZnhMHBnSoBcV7qad-RXLT4n4P3DU8BUmAosD6VUIzcvX2hZX25uu_JcRcCucJ_vmBSvag3tdSJnfISh6v6_Y5SQoY33OxmAPq_NYEgFHelT1QeK02-n0GJV2zqRzb6UVNbwYo0r5XW2tMXqMztxi1jF-1AbB_gqBYQTbHqm1V1vhOsNY5DfFKHqLEEeyXEHpTr_OFZQ2VxVol8t-25CaixzuDei537oSWaJVjM-L5G52STN9mY1J]. However, isolated symbols do not construct a language. These marks lack phonetic indicators, syntax, or clear word breaks.

Evidence shows that the Sanur burial urns and cists contained isolated or paired scratch marks [https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYG7tJFxrYK-0w10xPvy2h1tiKOvIPItEd7sX8jMj87gZOu7PohGk_7oHzJEDq2Z8_AJsUUQnfLvOZ1y_wnzOp6QeL4BX-U6QVfu0tGpieKEbKnTsK23koyWpn4t4ksK1e5PYvrQR53heKehkWdTuthcHo_uQx_zaCQ4XR2H3VLdXeYcEKWTdvnqpqIwxS-jV5W9TOH0jDbIUlI6SADYcJxZo38fZDPfhWh-j8YlhwAO6loj2KDPe_TKLEs153DtHJUHtY7eQNx6b0eLX-Aao5cmSTUS]. Rather than reading as prose, they served as visual markers—potters' marks, clan crests, or ritual designations associated with the dead [https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYG7tJFxrYK-0w10xPvy2h1tiKOvIPItEd7sX8jMj87gZOu7PohGk_7oHzJEDq2Z8_AJsUUQnfLvOZ1y_wnzOp6QeL4BX-U6QVfu0tGpieKEbKnTsK23koyWpn4t4ksK1e5PYvrQR53heKehkWdTuthcHo_uQx_zaCQ4XR2H3VLdXeYcEKWTdvnqpqIwxS-jV5W9TOH0jDbIUlI6SADYcJxZo38fZDPfhWh-j8YlhwAO6loj2KDPe_TKLEs153DtHJUHtY7eQNx6b0eLX-Aao5cmSTUS, https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQEc9FYBKqyGHIvw-xBrnOvVCMrlrtI-pyDWqwtbHyFQ3KXp6QOvE4FtrSSMFPSC7eajWqCdZSJvfese_p_NdejaZLM3SsJnm_b5Tpvp5c__9d7oq087kaRP_9_8smypdcyyDuHtSfMLyabRa-skmrE_xArm_Z6nxljF3zU3j2vBsehzpwnZOm3Kb7WToQjiWYl56doCfq5efwgr8gdNxdy2nPfwJGYWwupTXMk=]. The stratigraphy at Sanur established a baseline: a widespread, non-alphabetized symbolic system pre-dating phonetic writing in the far south [https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQGnIbu8GRIKusRe0PgXCOOeNRZwjbCckOa-VUpcCxxv9-oAC7B-c707SV8_eRKX8qIFZZY55ZgyYxk8ZQfJOrMlsh2aPTSWfHBOG0roIIc2fJ5O5thaNNhOIgIe6XiGtI51egVJ6hcyETq9EMz-rUvFHQqys-wgdlIYQLjAxyH3bA==].

Kodumanal and the Transition to Script

If Sanur provides the non-linguistic baseline, excavations at Kodumanal show the transition toward true writing [https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQE60svIudnholGLgEInvikojlG2zQJrmYRTVMNxVnjbXpTNilEuzYKeYHe35ZlFNiaUbxr1LkpZnlT7wlxCBbjJoy8oiPZuAtrOBgvEZTc0q4_ZHstQO4JxlXxLsyXu9IGqQZhqNFdDBOVcWc9AgGsuakIZyvo2t6c5_hBpsZ1cBbHMfdZpVZ-LR1UnGz3JSt5_vRdL84u0uud0c4h3-2P655YMrfk=]. Directed over several seasons by archaeologist [K. Rajan of Pondicherry University, digs at Kodumanal](https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQE60svIudnholGLgEInvikojlG2zQJrmYRTVMNxVnjbXpTNilEuzYKeYHe35ZlFNiaUbxr1LkpZnlT7wlxCBbjJoy8oiPZuAtrOBgvEZTc0q4_ZHstQO4JxlXxLsyXu9IGqQZhqNFdDBOVcWc9AgGsuakIZyvo2t6c5_hBpsZ1cBbHMfdZpVZ-LR1UnGz3JSt5_vRdL84u0uud0c4h3-2P655YMrfk=, https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQGwctIss-sluRjkjT_HBE-cqmQidPYwR6wAH1CtRtZgM6vk1l26WOG7k45Qt1ed39kG-10WYBuD1xM0-pj76XMrCkIwail_2w-6wBCUsRtsrZt7F4DL5xDIAnYfrdEQsSzupbZzCtys) revealed thousands of ceramic fragments across distinct habitation and burial layers [https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQE60svIudnholGLgEInvikojlG2zQJrmYRTVMNxVnjbXpTNilEuzYKeYHe35ZlFNiaUbxr1LkpZnlT7wlxCBbjJoy8oiPZuAtrOBgvEZTc0q4_ZHstQO4JxlXxLsyXu9IGqQZhqNFdDBOVcWc9AgGsuakIZyvo2t6c5_hBpsZ1cBbHMfdZpVZ-LR1UnGz3JSt5_vRdL84u0uud0c4h3-2P655YMrfk=, https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQGwctIss-sluRjkjT_HBE-cqmQidPYwR6wAH1CtRtZgM6vk1l26WOG7k45Qt1ed39kG-10WYBuD1xM0-pj76XMrCkIwail_2w-6wBCUsRtsrZt7F4DL5xDIAnYfrdEQsSzupbZzCtys].

The stratigraphy at Kodumanal uncovers a clear evolution:

1. Lower Strata: Ceramic sherds show almost exclusively non-alphabetic graffiti marks—geometric shapes and linear symbols carved into pot shoulders [https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQE60svIudnholGLgEInvikojlG2zQJrmYRTVMNxVnjbXpTNilEuzYKeYHe35ZlFNiaUbxr1LkpZnlT7wlxCBbjJoy8oiPZuAtrOBgvEZTc0q4_ZHstQO4JxlXxLsyXu9IGqQZhqNFdDBOVcWc9AgGsuakIZyvo2t6c5_hBpsZ1cBbHMfdZpVZ-LR1UnGz3JSt5_vRdL84u0uud0c4h3-2P655YMrfk=].
2. Middle Strata: Potsherds feature both graffiti symbols and alphabetic Tamil-Brahmi script [https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQE60svIudnholGLgEInvikojlG2zQJrmYRTVMNxVnjbXpTNilEuzYKeYHe35ZlFNiaUbxr1LkpZnlT7wlxCBbjJoy8oiPZuAtrOBgvEZTc0q4_ZHstQO4JxlXxLsyXu9IGqQZhqNFdDBOVcWc9AgGsuakIZyvo2t6c5_hBpsZ1cBbHMfdZpVZ-LR1UnGz3JSt5_vRdL84u0uud0c4h3-2P655YMrfk=]. In some instances, both appear on the exact same vessel [https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQE60svIudnholGLgEInvikojlG2zQJrmYRTVMNxVnjbXpTNilEuzYKeYHe35ZlFNiaUbxr1LkpZnlT7wlxCBbjJoy8oiPZuAtrOBgvEZTc0q4_ZHstQO4JxlXxLsyXu9IGqQZhqNFdDBOVcWc9AgGsuakIZyvo2t6c5_hBpsZ1cBbHMfdZpVZ-LR1UnGz3JSt5_vRdL84u0uud0c4h3-2P655YMrfk=].
3. Upper Strata: Full Tamil-Brahmi personal names predominate [https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQE60svIudnholGLgEInvikojlG2zQJrmYRTVMNxVnjbXpTNilEuzYKeYHe35ZlFNiaUbxr1LkpZnlT7wlxCBbjJoy8oiPZuAtrOBgvEZTc0q4_ZHstQO4JxlXxLsyXu9IGqQZhqNFdDBOVcWc9AgGsuakIZyvo2t6c5_hBpsZ1cBbHMfdZpVZ-LR1UnGz3JSt5_vRdL84u0uud0c4h3-2P655YMrfk=, https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYFK2L9nwh1X-Dj72tU3sq-qnY1zt_dgCxhnBnxmQJnvpdV4qtW_GBCP2cLry8kTMW0s9R4MEON8zIy1wdydPAPL_LIZKC_hcdyQC5AS2EC9DUDh4KiJu_4o6rN0YpLw0A==]. The script encodes proper names like Akuran or trade titles, indicating phonetic writing tied directly to spoken Old Tamil [https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQFdpm_e0lGX81SIhqSZgmuiqeYHsL5741w6K9p8gvsBRePuP5YMSBuYlRKo1V5uyu7hzX75NNC07iF1S_pAE5Xd8jQaGDoEvnHB03OuRUrPiTLrviO_O7AMrxbWkFgThztwiPHJI42uy8OAYwCVRB932WVyjzlF3wGCQ_eTzuPIvCfxZfnfQ5-kGrpTgAdk2OEA38eKJ2XRI7Z8WmY9wxgvBGH3pgaVWC0Pke7QurbLu5k=].

This stratigraphy shows that Tamil-Brahmi did not instantly replace older mark-making systems. Instead, non-linguistic graffiti and true alphabetic writing coexisted for generations [https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQE60svIudnholGLgEInvikojlG2zQJrmYRTVMNxVnjbXpTNilEuzYKeYHe35ZlFNiaUbxr1LkpZnlT7wlxCBbjJoy8oiPZuAtrOBgvEZTc0q4_ZHstQO4JxlXxLsyXu9IGqQZhqNFdDBOVcWc9AgGsuakIZyvo2t6c5_hBpsZ1cBbHMfdZpVZ-LR1UnGz3JSt5_vRdL84u0uud0c4h3-2P655YMrfk=].

⚖ Scholarly Debate: Structural Ancestry or Pragmatic Adoption?

Scholars debate the exact relation between these potters' marks and the fully realized Tamil-Brahmi script.

┌────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│ ⚖ SCHOLARLY DEBATE: THE ORIGINS OF TAMIL-BRAHMI                       │
│                                                                        │
│ Position A (Continuity Model): Epigraphists like Iravatham Mahadevan   │
│ argued that Megalithic graffiti represents a structural bridge between │
│ proto-script symbols and Tamil-Brahmi.                                 │
│                                                                        │
│ Position B (Adaptation Model): Linguists and archaeologists argue      │
│ that Tamil-Brahmi was an adaptation of Northern Ashokan Brahmi,       │
│ modified for Old Tamil phonology, while potters' marks persisted as    │
│ non-linguistic heraldry.                                               │
└────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

Epigraphist Iravatham Mahadevan argued that South Indian graffiti marks served as a visual precursor, conditioning local communities to associate scratch marks on pots with ownership and identity [https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYG7tJFxrYK-0w10xPvy2h1tiKOvIPItEd7sX8jMj87gZOu7PohGk_7oHzJEDq2Z8_AJsUUQnfLvOZ1y_wnzOp6QeL4BX-U6QVfu0tGpieKEbKnTsK23koyWpn4t4ksK1e5PYvrQR53heKehkWdTuthcHo_uQx_zaCQ4XR2H3VLdXeYcEKWTdvnqpqIwxS-jV5W9TOH0jDbIUlI6SADYcJxZo38fZDPfhWh-j8YlhwAO6loj2KDPe_TKLEs153DtHJUHtY7eQNx6b0eLX-Aao5cmSTUS, https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQEdrgE9J3qLaVkpOZ7uVPpFfJgAIBvBf_IMx2Mgxi7Uj0Wme0YQqcRnAkn24tbgce2pxVvCRhrhtyIsh5JE6uH5fWYgunwnvJxBetNy7hMLkGGmzDqoXVSIWc35NCsf8-H5AXpiSkLX9kPOuwk3JhuKPMoIPVlvaxYdqKxiPSRM]. In this view, when alphabetic script arrived, the practice of inscribing fired ceramics was already deeply established in Megalithic culture [https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQEdrgE9J3qLaVkpOZ7uVPpFfJgAIBvBf_IMx2Mgxi7Uj0Wme0YQqcRnAkn24tbgce2pxVvCRhrhtyIsh5JE6uH5fWYgunwnvJxBetNy7hMLkGGmzDqoXVSIWc35NCsf8-H5AXpiSkLX9kPOuwk3JhuKPMoIPVlvaxYdqKxiPSRM].

Other historical linguists maintain that Tamil-Brahmi was adapted from Mauryan Brahmi, modified to account for Tamil sounds missing in Prakrit (such as special Dravidian consonants like ṟ, ṉ, and ḷ). In this framework, the pre-existing graffiti marks were not an alphabet in development, but a parallel system of symbols that continued to mark property alongside written words [https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYG7tJFxrYK-0w10xPvy2h1tiKOvIPItEd7sX8jMj87gZOu7PohGk_7oHzJEDq2Z8_AJsUUQnfLvOZ1y_wnzOp6QeL4BX-U6QVfu0tGpieKEbKnTsK23koyWpn4t4ksK1e5PYvrQR53heKehkWdTuthcHo_uQx_zaCQ4XR2H3VLdXeYcEKWTdvnqpqIwxS-jV5W9TOH0jDbIUlI6SADYcJxZo38fZDPfhWh-j8YlhwAO6loj2KDPe_TKLEs153DtHJUHtY7eQNx6b0eLX-Aao5cmSTUS].

The Material Context of Writing

The transition to script in early South India was driven by daily trade and manufacture. Kodumanal was an active industrial hub known for gemstone processing, semi-precious bead production, and iron-working [https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQGwctIss-sluRjkjT_HBE-cqmQidPYwR6wAH1CtRtZgM6vk1l26WOG7k45Qt1ed39kG-10WYBuD1xM0-pj76XMrCkIwail_2w-6wBCUsRtsrZt7F4DL5xDIAnYfrdEQsSzupbZzCtys, https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQE5odk5oYwTLj3wtHbZCjjh2Cu6s67dqRjxDv9N3MVE5QCLTnhXFv99ZKdVA2dV5iDMd0I20mojVXZSRKyONtiEVrm0Z07ftA9Sgal4NKY32U5RuplSRoD--Rtb-JUHJxgK8PFSyDgAAGc-crHh67V8sjG1ZPoqndxLXwA41MSzL7rFEbBuQtg=].

In a busy production settlement, marking property required higher specificity than a general clan symbol could offer. Where an incised trident mark might indicate a lineage or workshop, an alphabetic inscription recorded a merchant's exact name [https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQE60svIudnholGLgEInvikojlG2zQJrmYRTVMNxVnjbXpTNilEuzYKeYHe35ZlFNiaUbxr1LkpZnlT7wlxCBbjJoy8oiPZuAtrOBgvEZTc0q4_ZHstQO4JxlXxLsyXu9IGqQZhqNFdDBOVcWc9AgGsuakIZyvo2t6c5_hBpsZ1cBbHMfdZpVZ-LR1UnGz3JSt5_vRdL84u0uud0c4h3-2P655YMrfk=, https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYFK2L9nwh1X-Dj72tU3sq-qnY1zt_dgCxhnBnxmQJnvpdV4qtW_GBCP2cLry8kTMW0s9R4MEON8zIy1wdydPAPL_LIZKC_hcdyQC5AS2EC9DUDh4KiJu_4o6rN0YpLw0A==].

The stratigraphy of Sanur and Kodumanal shows how writing took root [https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQFr-kcU5OG_S8x7CumBTBvLj9Z0itOTRRcmTrB8pZnQ695nZV5-mlq8dObCSVUk7ZJh91pHfbVeUy8XiSPOAq1cewukuMYvX6aqu-4notMOWwJU5VotH_P9hUwOzg==, https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQE60svIudnholGLgEInvikojlG2zQJrmYRTVMNxVnjbXpTNilEuzYKeYHe35ZlFNiaUbxr1LkpZnlT7wlxCBbjJoy8oiPZuAtrOBgvEZTc0q4_ZHstQO4JxlXxLsyXu9IGqQZhqNFdDBOVcWc9AgGsuakIZyvo2t6c5_hBpsZ1cBbHMfdZpVZ-LR1UnGz3JSt5_vRdL84u0uud0c4h3-2P655YMrfk=]. Literacy did not appear as an elite royal decree carved onto stone pillars. It spread through practical trade, scratched by hand into the rims and shoulders of everyday cookware [https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYQE60svIudnholGLgEInvikojlG2zQJrmYRTVMNxVnjbXpTNilEuzYKeYHe35ZlFNiaUbxr1LkpZnlT7wlxCBbjJoy8oiPZuAtrOBgvEZTc0q4_ZHstQO4JxlXxLsyXu9IGqQZhqNFdDBOVcWc9AgGsuakIZyvo2t6c5_hBpsZ1cBbHMfdZpVZ-LR1UnGz3JSt5_vRdL84u0uud0c4h3-2P655YMrfk=, https://vertexaisearch.cloud.google.com/grounding-api-redirect/AUZIYFK2L9nwh1X-Dj72tU3sq-qnY1zt_dgCxhnBnxmQJnvpdV4qtW_GBCP2cLry8kTMW0s9R4MEON8zIy1wdydPAPL_LIZKC_hcdyQC5AS2EC9DUDh4KiJu_4o6rN0YpLw0A==].